Progressivism in a Conservative Milieu: The Rise of Progressives within Muhammadiyah, 1995-2020

Abstract

Indonesian Islam is often lauded for what is seen as its moderate and progressive character. Much of the literature on this subject focuses on civil society organisations which have long traditions of progressivism, particularly Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and its many NGO affiliates. But these are not the only sources of progressive Muslim thought. Other organisations that are perceived as conservative have also played a role in popularising more liberal attitudes.

At the core of my research is a conundrum: why do predominantly conservative organisations sometimes produce progressive leaders? To answer this question, I am studying the case of Muhammadiyah, Indonesia's second-largest Muslim organisation and historically a bastion of conservativism. From the mid-1990s, progressives were ascendant in Muhammadiyah and exerted considerable influence on Indonesia's shift from autocracy to democracy. I argue that several factors explain this progressive dominance: the rise internationally of liberal Muslim thinking from the 1980s; the inclination of Indonesia's expanding and well-educated Muslim middle-class to embrace progressive ideas; a political context of declining authoritarianism and push for liberalising reforms; rivalry with other Islamic organisations, especially NU. These factors drove changes to Muhammadiyah's power structures and leadership but also set off a decades-long contestation between progressives and conservatives. This thesis examines how two key institutions came to represent these rival forces: the Majelis Tarjih (Fatwa Council) was a stronghold of progressivism and the Majelis Tabligh (Predication Council) a bastion of conservatism. The doctrinal and discursive divergence between these councils offers insights into Muhammadiyah's shifting identity. The first wave of progressivism was evident between 1995-2005, and again from 2015 to the present. While much of Muhammadiyah's grassroots membership remains conservative, the continuing influence of progressive leaders raises questions about whether Muhammadiyah's religious character is changing or whether there is a growing disjunction, politically and doctrinally, between its elites and its rank and file.

Using epistemic community and institutional interests frameworks, this study argues that ideas and protection of institutional interests have driven the rise of progressivism in Muhammadiyah. The generation of liberal ideas, both globally and domestically, inspired younger Muhammadiyah intellectuals to pursue a new agenda for their organisation, while changing relations with the Indonesian state and the determination to maintain influence within government circles at a time of rapid political change also gave impetus to progressives. This thesis explores the ways in which Muhammadiyah leaders adjusted to reformist pressures to protect their organisational interests. Show more